Bridging the Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship: A Cross-National Analysis of Cultural and Perceptual Determinants
This study examines the persistent gender gap in entrepreneurship endeavour by integrating individual entrepreneurial perceptions with national cultural dimensions across 41 countries. It addresses a high demand for a context-sensitive understanding of how cultural biases and institutional settings influence gendered entrepreneurial patterns. On the grounds of employing HAC-corrected Ordinary Least Squares regression for a cross-national dataset, the analysis quantifies connections between early-stage entrepreneurial activity, as measured by the female-to-male Total Entrepreneurial Activity ratio, and crucial perceptual variables alongside Hofstede’s six cultural dimensions.
The results indicate that a greater perception of entrepreneurial opportunities correlates with a more equal gender balance. Conversely, high status recognition of successful entrepreneurs and hierarchical cultural values such as power distance significantly inhibit female participation. Interestingly, while uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation play persuasive roles in shaping gender inequality, the effects of individualism and masculinity diverge from prior academic literature, revealing unexpected or context-specific dynamics. These findings enhance social role theory in the field of research on entrepreneurship by demonstrating that structural cultural mechanisms are primary barriers to achieving gender parity, even when individual attitudes are supportive. For policymakers, the results suggest that achieving gender equality in entrepreneurship (SDG 5) necessitates not only targeted economic interventions but also comprehensive institutional reforms that challenge the existing cultural status quo and promote future-oriented, risk-tolerant attitudes. Overall, this study provides empirical evidence and nuanced insights into the interplay between entrepreneurial behaviour and national culture in narrowing the gender gap.
Adom, K., & Anambane, G. (2020). Understanding the role of culture and gender stereotypes in women entrepreneurship through the lens of the stereotype threat theory. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(1), 100–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-07-2018-0070
Akpamah, P., & Matko, A. (2023). Assessing SMEs leadership styles impact on business development and job creation: Evidence from Ghana. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 21(1), 448–458. https://doi.org/10.21511/PPM.21(1).2023.38
Aldaaja, Y., Maamari, B. E., Islam, M. A., Sarihasan, I., Imam, H., Alhur, M., & Fenyves, V. (2025). Exploring the Role of University, Environmental, and Government Support in Shaping Students’ Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intentions: Evidence from Saudi Arabia. Educational Process: International Journal, 16. https://doi.org/10.22521/EDUPIJ.2025.16.203
Aldreabi, H., Alhur, M., Al-Okaily, M., Qasim, D., Dahdoul, N. K., & Shiyyab, F. S. (2025). Unveiling the dynamics of generative AI adoption: A business intelligence analysis through topic modeling-based bibliometric study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 9, 100456. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CAEAI.2025.100456
Becsky-Nagy, P., & Fazekas, B. (2025). What do women want? - role of higher education in shaping female entrepreneurship. Regional Statistics, 15(2), 208–233. https://doi.org/10.15196/RS150202
Brush, C., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T., & Welter, F. (2018). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics 2018 53:2, 53(2), 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11187-018-9992-9
Bullough, A., Guelich, U., Manolova, T. S., & Schjoedt, L. (2021). Women’s entrepreneurship and culture: gender role expectations and identities, societal culture, and the entrepreneurial environment. Small Business Economics 2021 58:2, 58(2), 985–996. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11187-020-00429-6
Butkus, M., Dargenytė-Kacilevičienė, L., Matuzevičiūtė, K., Ruplienė, D., & Šeputienė, J. (2022). Do Gender and Age Matter in Employment – Sectoral Growth Relationship Over the Recession and Expansion. Ekonomika, 101(2), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.15388/Ekon.2022.101.2.3
Çelikkol, M., Kitapçi, H., & Döven, G. (2019). Culture’s impact on entrepreneurship and interaction effect of economic development level: an 81 country study. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 20(4), 777–797. https://doi.org/10.3846/JBEM.2019.10180
Ditshwenyego Ndlovu, L., Almero Kruger, N., & Meyer, N. (2022). Unleashing the potential: Exploring internal factors for the success of women entrepreneurs in South Africa’s agricultural sector. Journal of Contemporary Management, 19(si1), 158–182. https://doi.org/10.35683/JCM23015.213
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-97607-000
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2004). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: Implications for the partner preferences of women and men (pp. 269–295). Guilford Press. https://www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/social-role-theory-of-sex-differences-and-similarities-implicatio-2
Emami, A., Khajeheian, D., Emami, A., & Khajeheian, D. (2018). Social Norms and Entrepreneurial Action: The Mediating Role of Opportunity Confidence. Sustainability 2019, Vol. 11, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11010158
Fernández Robin, C., Yáñez, D., & Santander, P. (2019). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor GEM. Reporte Región de Valparaíso 2018-2019.
Ferrari, F. (2025). Exploring the gendered legitimate peripheral participation in family SMEs–unveiling gender dynamics in knowledge transfer and leadership development. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-01-2025-0010/1316034/EXPLORING-THE-GENDERED-LEGITIMATE-PERIPHERAL
Ferreira, V., Santos, D., Morais, G. M., Ferreira, F., Ribeiro, A., & Pardini, D. J. (2019). Female Entrepreneurship: Evolution, Current Challenges, and Future Prospects. International Journal of Business Administration, 10(5), 24. https://doi.org/10.5430/IJBA.V10N5P24
Fleck, E., Kakouris, A., & Winkel, D. (2021). Cultural traits of entrepreneurship education: a cross-national study. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 13(5), 838–863. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-02-2020-0030
GEM - Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. (2025). https://www.gemconsortium.org/data
Gerke, A., Ianiro-Dahm, P., Muck, P., Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., & Hell, B. (2023). How Do Female Entrepreneurs Differ From Male Entrepreneurs? Distinguishing Personality Traits Throughout the Entrepreneurial Journey. Journal of Entrepreneurship, 32(3), 525–552. https://doi.org/10.1177/09713557231210684;REQUESTEDJOURNAL:JOURNAL:JOEA;WEBSITE:WEBSITE:SAGE;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION
Gimenez-Jimenez, D., Edelman, L. F., Dawson, A., Calabrò, A., Gimenez-Jimenez, D., Edelman, L. F., Dawson John Molson, A., & Calabrò, A. (2020). Women entrepreneurs’ progress in the venturing process: the impact of risk aversion and culture. Small Business Economics 2020 58:2, 58(2), 1091–1111. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11187-020-00435-8
Hailemariam, A. T., Kroon, B., van Engen, M., & van Veldhoven, M. (2019). Dreams and reality: autonomy support for women entrepreneurs in Ethiopia. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 38(7), 727–742. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-10-2017-0230
Hechavarria, D. M., & Ingram, A. E. (2016). The entrepreneurial gender divideHegemonic masculinity, emphasized femininity and organizational forms. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 8(3), 242–281. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-09-2014-0029
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and Organizations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 10(4), 15–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00208825.1980.11656300
Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014
Hofstede Insights. (2025). https://geerthofstede.com/launching-new-hofstede-culture-comparison-tool/
Iizuka, M., & Hane, G. (2021). Towards attaining the SDGs: cases of disruptive and inclusive innovations. Innovation and Development, 11(2–3), 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/2157930X.2021.1954751
Ikechukwu, K., Adidi, T., Kanu, C., & Okpokwasili, O. (2025). Ethics, Entrepreneurship and Sustainable Development: Converging Perspectives and Insights. Veritas Universitas Press. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.22308.39045
Kanze, D., Huang, L., Conley, M. A., & Higgins, E. T. (2018). We Ask Men to Win and Women Not to Lose: Closing the Gender Gap in Startup Funding. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 586–614. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.1215
Katjiteo, A. (2024). Entrepreneurship and Innovation. In https://services.igi-global.com/resolvedoi/resolve.aspx?doi=10.4018/979-8-3693-7903-5.ch011 (pp. 249–284). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-7903-5.ch011
Kim, J. H. (2019). Multicollinearity and misleading statistical results. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 72(6), 558–569. https://doi.org/10.4097/KJA.19087
Lavoie, D. (2024). The Discovery and Interpretation of Profit Opportunities: Culture and the Kirznerian Entrepreneur. Modern Austrian Economics Vol 3, 97–118. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003549666-8
Liñán, F., Jaén, I., & Martín, D. (2020). Does entrepreneurship fit her? Women entrepreneurs, gender-role orientation, and entrepreneurial culture. Small Business Economics 2020 58:2, 58(2), 1051–1071. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11187-020-00433-W
Liñán, F., Jaén, I., & Martín, D. (2022). Does entrepreneurship fit her? Women entrepreneurs, gender-role orientation, and entrepreneurial culture. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 1051–1071. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11187-020-00433-W/TABLES/7
Lingappa, A. K., & Rodrigues, L. L. R. (2023). Synthesis of Necessity and Opportunity Motivation Factors in Women Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Literature Review. SAGE Open, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231159294
Máté, D., Estiyanti, N. M., Novotny, A., & Vveinhardt, J. (2025). University business incubators in Indonesia: Navigating commercial viability and societal contributions. Sustainable Futures, 10, 101138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SFTR.2025.101138
Mavlutova, I., Spilbergs, A., Lesinskis, K., & Maditinos, D. (2025). Increasing Entrepreneurial Intentions of Generation Z as an Economic Engine: The Use of Digital Tools in Education. Ekonomika, 104(2), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.15388/Ekon.2025.104.2.2
Newey, W., & West, K. (2014). A simple, positive semi-definite, heteroscedasticity and autocorrelation consistent covariance matrix. Applied Econometrics, 33(1), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913610
Pandey, A., Jayarathne, P. G. S. A., Yadav, A. K., & Chandel, A. (2024). Role of Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Economic Diversification. In https://services.igi-global.com/resolvedoi/resolve.aspx?doi=10.4018/979-8-3693-9486-1.ch003 (pp. 57–92). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-9486-1.ch003
Prince, S., Chapman, S., & Cassey, P. (2021). The definition of entrepreneurship: is it less complex than we think? International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 27(9), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-11-2019-0634
Rietveld, C. A., & Patel, P. C. (2022). Gender inequality and the entrepreneurial gender gap: Evidence from 97 countries (2006–2017). Journal of Evolutionary Economics 2022 32:4, 32(4), 1205–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00191-022-00780-9
Salis, G., & Flegl, M. (2021). Cross-cultural analysis of gender gap in entrepreneurship. Changing Societies and Personalities, 5(1), 83–102. https://doi.org/10.15826/CSP.2021.5.1.123
Sarihasan, I., Novotny, Á., Meyer, N., & Máté, D. (2024). Female immigrant entrepreneurship: A contextual approach. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 51(3), 342–363. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2024.136343
Schneider, M. C., & Bos, A. L. (2019). The Application of Social Role Theory to the Study of Gender in Politics. Political Psychology, 40(S1), 173–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/POPS.12573
Soni, Dr. K., Priya, Ms. K., & Adnan, Dr. S. A. (2025). Empowering Change: The Role of Women Entrepreneurs in Advancing Global Sustainability Through Sustainable Development Goals. International Research Journal on Advanced Engineering and Management (IRJAEM), 3(03), 416–430. https://doi.org/10.47392/IRJAEM.2025.0067
Stoker, S., Rossano-Rivero, S., Davis, S., Wakkee, I., & Stroila, I. (2024). Pursuing entrepreneurial opportunities is not a choice: the interplay between gender norms, contextual embeddedness, and (in)equality mechanisms in entrepreneurial contexts. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 30(7), 1725–1749. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-12-2022-1139
Sweida, G., Sherman, C. L., Sweida, G., & Sherman, C. L. (2020). Does Happiness Launch More Businesses? Affect, Gender, and Entrepreneurial Intention. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020, Vol. 17, 17(18), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH17186908
Tlaiss, H. A., & Kauser, S. (2019). Entrepreneurial Leadership, Patriarchy, Gender, and Identity in the Arab World: Lebanon in Focus. Journal of Small Business Management, 57(2), 517–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/JSBM.12397
Venkatesh, V., Shaw, J. D., Sykes, T. A., Wamba, S. F., & Macharia, M. (2017). Networks, Technology, and Entrepreneurship: A Field Quasi-experiment among Women in Rural India. Https://Doi.Org/10.5465/Amj.2015.0849, 60(5), 1709–1740. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2015.0849
Vracheva, V., & Stoyneva, I. (2020). Does gender equality bridge or buffer the entrepreneurship gender gap? A cross-country investigation. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 26(8), 1827–1844. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2020-0144
Wang, J., Li, Y., & Long, D. (2019). Gender gap in entrepreneurial growth ambitionThe role of culturally contingent perceptions of the institutional environment in China. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25(6), 1283–1307. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-04-2018-0248
Weiss, J., Anisimova, T., Shirokova, G., & Durst, S. (2023). The entrepreneurial gender gap: The role of in-group support and national embeddedness values in young women’s entrepreneurship. International Small Business Journal, 41(8), 843–872. https://doi.org/10.1177/02662426231168556
Wu, J., & Li, Y. (2020). An Exploratory Cross-Country Analysis of Female Entrepreneurial Activity: The Roles of Gendered Institutions. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1515/ERJ-2018-0019/MACHINEREADABLECITATION/RIS
Yıldırım, E., Arslan, Y., & Barutçu, M. T. (2016). The role of uncertainty avoidance and indulgence as cultural dimensions on online shopping expenditure. Eurasian Business and Economics Journal, 4(4), 42–51. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.17740/eas.econ.2016.V4‐04
Yousafzai, S., Aljanova, N., & Omran, W. (2024). Masquerade of power: women entrepreneurs reshaping gender norms in Kazakhstan’s male-dominated sectors. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-02-2024-0028/1250313/MASQUERADE-OF-POWER-WOMEN-ENTREPRENEURS-RESHAPING
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.